Topic

West

East

Notes

KEY POINTS

What counts the most

That Jesus of Nazareth was born of the Virgin Mary in Bethlehem; that he taught, healed and performed miracles before being crucified for our sins; that He was and is the son of God; that he was resurrected and was taken up into heaven; that He will come again and will reign over a new kingdom of heaven and earth where we will be resurrected in new bodies also and where we will experience no pain and commit no sin, only enjoy happiness with Our Lord and our brothers and sisters in Him.

That God is Father, Son and Holy Spirit.  That Jesus is the Christ, that is the Messiah, spoken of in Scripture. 

That above all we should love our God and love our neighbour as ourselves.

That we must be baptised and strive to go out and invite others to be baptised and teach them all that Jesus taught us.

That we accept the Holy Scriptures.

That, in memory of Jesus we gather and repeat the actions of the Last Supper and receive His body and His blood.

That we ask for, and receive, forgiveness of our sins in this life, and forgive others likewise.

More could be said here, or the Creeds written out, but I have attempted to use my own language.

The Creed

Three Creeds are used:

The Apostle’s Creed

The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381)

The Athanasian Creed

The term ‘filioque’ was formally added to the ‘Nicene’ Creed in the 11th century, i.e. the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son though it was used informally prior to that, first perhaps in Spain as a defence against Arianism.  It formally appears in a Creed in the proceedings of the 8th Council of Toledo In 653.

Four Creeds are used:

The Apostle’s Creed

The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381)

The Athanasian Creed

The Chalcedonian Creed (451)

The Orthodox reject the inclusion of a filioque clause as going against Ecumenical Councils, especially the 3rd Council which forbade changes, and distorting the understanding of the Trinity.

The filioque clause is very controversial and is a matter of governance as much as doctrine, since it was seen by the East as a claim of Papal supremacy in the 11th century.  As Western monks carried an altered Creed into Eastern countries in 9th century, Pope Leo III promoted a solution whereby the Creed is unchanged while teaching can accommodate greater depth or clarity.

The Holy Spirit works with the Father and the Son.  The Holy Spirit conceives Jesus, and Jesus breathes on the disciples before saying that they can forgive sins in His name.  Jesus is taken up to heaven so that the Father can send the Paraclete.

Content of Holy Scripture (‘canon’)

A Bible of 73 books is observed.  These are considered divinely inspired and morally binding.  The Septuagint is the key source of the Old Testament, i.e. the translation into Greek of the Jewish scriptures by seventy scribes in the 3rd century.

Saint Justin Martyr (of Samaria and Greek parents) in 158 describes these as ‘the Law, the Prophets and the memoirs of the Apostles’, which is one way of summarising the Old and New Testaments very briefly.

A Bible of 81-85 books is observed (including all 73 of the western tradition).

The additional books include: 3 & 4 Maccabees, Psalm 151, The Prayer of Mannaseh in Chronicles, 1 Esdras and 1 & 2 Clement.

The differences passed through the Great Schism, rather than being fundamental.  The understanding of Holy Scripture is what can be validly read in liturgy which is a slightly more fluid basis than a legalistic canon.

Note that the ‘New Testament’ was only begun after Jesus’ death, and the early church had to consider many important and diverse writings and also many wrong ones.  The early churches tended to agree quickly on a core of books, along with a second layer of ‘deutero-canonical’ or ‘apocryphal’ books.  Protestants usually observe a smaller canon of 66 books excluding this second layer and point to the ‘Masoretic text’ of Jewish Scripture formalised well after Jesus’ time.  Books outside of the canon may well have ‘good’ content but may also have errors.

Rational theology

Kataphatic theology is much more common: the theological reflections which come as a result of our apprehensions of God; that is, from what God reveals to us.  Example: God is omnipotent.  This approach has developed extensively in the west post-Schism leading to extrapolations about God’s nature and actions beyond Scripture or the Church Fathers.

Apophatic theology is much more common.  This theology explore the way the divine nature transcends what can said about God, reminding us the limits of human language and all theological constructs.  God can be understood better by considering what He is not, or does not do.  For example, God does not sin.

This phraseology was introduced by Dionysius the Areopagite in the 6th century reflecting earlier thoughts.  Neither East nor West uses one theology to the exclusion of the other.  Nevertheless, at a first approximation, the West has gone far in expressing God using Kataphatic theology, and the East prefers to make more cautious Apophatic statements about God.

Original sin

Original sin is a deprivation of original holiness and justice.  Human nature has been wounded in its natural powers, subject to ignorance, suffering and the dominion of death, and inclined to sin (concupiscence).  Baptism (Christ’s grace) erases original sin and turns a man back towards God, but the consequences for nature persist and summon man to spiritual battle.  Although officially a mystery, the doctrine of Immaculate Conception implies that the sin of Adam is transferred to the human when it is conceived.  Catechism of the Catholic Church.

All men inherit the fallen human stock of Adam.  Original sin is understood as a sinful inclination which has entered into mankind.  Both the mind and the feelings have become darkened, and therefore man’s moral freedom often does not incline towards the good, but towards evil (concupiscence).  The deadly sins (passions) are manipulated by the devil, with suffering and death.  Christ conquers the devil and destroys his power, namely death.  Eastern emphasis is on defeating the passions in life.  Orthodox theology.

Some people entered heaven before Christ’s sacrifice it would seem - Moses, Elijah and Enoch.  What does this say about original sin?  Does original sin keep each individual out of heaven, or is it a statement of mankind's general unfitness for heaven?  Adam (male and female) is cast out of Eden, not yet heaven.  I think too strong a connection is made between death of the body and original sin based on Saint Paul’s words.  Adam and Eve are not immortal to begin with - we are told God keeps them away from the Tree of Life to prevent them becoming immortal.  Does baptism remove original sin?  Our sinful inclination remains.

The sinlessness of the Blessed Virgin Mary and the Immaculate Conception

God prevented Mary from receiving original sin when she was conceived by God’s grace and the merits of Jesus Christ and the Church has become ever more aware of this. She was a perfect woman and was never in a state of either original sin or personal sin.  She chose to die, which Jesus also did, since death is a consequence of sin.

Catechism of the Catholic Church.

Mary never sinned.  Though she had original sin (human nature), she was cleansed of this immediately before the conception of Jesus in her womb.  She died a natural death as is the lot of all humans.  Several Church Fathers and Popes took this view and it was documented at the Third Ecumenical Council Orthodox view of Mary's sinlessness.

The personal sinlessness of Mary is without doubt in both traditions.  Both agree Mary had no original sin when Jesus was conceived.  The difference is whether she once had it and when she was cleansed.  It can also affect whether she was free from suffering and death, the consequences of the fall (she clearly suffered).  Several Church Fathers clearly thought Mary inherited original sin and was cleansed of it before the conception of Jesus.  The Magnificat says “The Almighty has done great things to me”.

Veneration of the Virgin Mary

The Blessed Virgin Mary is revered very highly and most churches have a statue with open arms, or a detailed picture where she wears a blue shawl (probably indicating the covering of the Ark of the Covenant).  The statue may be carried in procession at special times.  She often has her own side-chapel or shrine in the church.

The Theotokos (Mother of God) or Panaghia (all-holy) is revered very highly.  Icons of her are often very large and prominent and may form a centrepiece in the nave. The most common icon is Mary holding the infant Jesus, and she usually wears a red mantle (probably indicating royalty).  Processions with these icons are common.

Jesus and Mary are the perfect Adam and Eve (Ish and Isha of the new mankind).

The Dormition / Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary

The Blessed Virgin Mary died and her body and soul were assumed into heaven shortly thereafter.  Some sources suggest she did not die, but the Dogma of the Assumption states it more than once.  Some sources say that she chose to die, because she was not subject to original sin and therefore neither death, but the Dogma seems not to allow this.

The Blessed Virgin Mary died - went to sleep, the Dormition - and her body and soul were taken into heaven shortly thereafter, sometimes called the Assumption.  Tradition has it that all but one of the Apostles were miraculously present when she died, and when Thomas arrived late and asked for the tomb to be re-opened, her body was gone.  Orthodox wiki.

That some Romans believe that Mary chose to die in a similar way to Jesus giving up His spirit is a deduction from original sin doctrine and it serves rationalism rather than tradition.  This question does not arise in Orthodoxy - Mary was a sinless human and died a natural death like all humans in our un-resurrected state.

Baptism

Water is poured on the head three times.

Valid baptism by anyone with the right intention and correct words.

Full immersion, three times.

Valid baptism by anyone with the right intention and correct words.

Fate of unbaptised babies

The Ecumenical Council of Florence declared that all who die in original sin end up in hell but not in equal punishment with those who died in mortal sin.  However it is also taught that God could remove original sin for someone before death, such as for infants, or for the righteous prior to Christ.

Unbaptised babies are not damned as they have not committed sin.  The matter is not codified and a merciful interpretation is usually adopted.

Jesus has insisted we be baptised.  It must be, at least, extremely important.  God has the last word.  Perhaps God's plan for salvation needs us corporal beings to have a corporal sign - effective for the one receiving it, for the one giving it, and the community witnessing it and upholding teaching.

Saints

There are those in heaven now who are recognised as being so through their virtuous life, writings and miracles.  We can call on them in prayer and ask for their help.

There are those in heaven now who are recognised as being so through their virtuous life, writings and miracles.  We can call on them in prayer and ask for their help.

There are different catalogues of saints in east and west, but the same viewpoints.

PRAYER

Prayer ropes and specific Marian prayers

The Rosary is extremely important in the Roman church.  It is tradition that the current form of five decades of beads was given to Saint Dominic in 1208.  Other forms of rosary are sometimes practised.  The ‘Hail Mary’ prayer is Biblical, while a second half ‘Holy Mary…’ was added during the Black Death in Europe.  The Hail Mary, Lord’s Prayer and Glory Be (at least) are repeated.

Prayer ropes are widely used, especially for the Jesus Prayer.

Repeated Marian prayers were common from the 9th century.  A modern form of 15 decades of prayers is attributed to Saint Seraphim of Sarah.   The Hail Mary, Lord’s Prayer, Glory Be and Jesus Prayer (at least) are repeated.

There is much pious but unreliable folklore here, which should not detract from a beautiful way to pray.

There is much similarity in current practices.

The Jesus Prayer

This is not a common practice, but the 20th century Fatima Prayer is very close, and is prayed within Rosary prayers.

Oh my Jesus, forgive us our sins and keep us from the fires of hell.  Lead all souls to heaven, especially those in most need of your mercy.

The Jesus Prayer is very important to focus the mind on God with no other thoughts.  It is very simple and accessible to anyone.

Lord Jesus Christ, son of God, have mercy on me, the sinner.

Luke 18:10 refers.  It is part of a monastic tradition and practice of hesychasm which leads to the inner light of God.

It is comforting to have such a simple prayer to lead you to peace and holiness.  “My yoke is easy and My burden is light.”

The Trisagion Prayer

Introduced or revived as part of the Divine Mercy tradition in the 20th century.

Holy God

Holy Mighty One

Holy Immortal One

Have mercy on us and on the whole world.

Part of liturgy from early times and widely used in prayer.

Holy God

Holy Mighty

Holy Immortal

Have mercy on us.

Daily cycle of prayer involving the psalms

The Liturgy of the Hours

Vespers

Compline (night prayer) 

The Office of Readings, or Matins or Vigils

Lauds

Terce

Sext (midday)

None

There are three major hours: Vespers, Matins and Lauds.

The Book of Hours

Vespers (sunset)

Compline (after-dinner)

Midnight Office (12:00am)

Orthros (sunrise) - also known as Matins

First Hour (6:00am)

Third Hour (9:00am)

Sixth Hour (12:00pm)

Ninth Hour (3:00pm)

These are often aggregated into three times: Evening, Dawn and Midday.

These are very similar and derived from monastic traditions.  The Roman church suppressed ‘Prime’, equivalent to ‘First Hour’, but instead has Lauds at that time.

Judgment after death

Each man receives his eternal retribution in his immortal soul at the very moment of his death, in a particular judgment that refers his life to Christ: either entrance into the blessedness of heaven - through a purification or immediately - or immediate and everlasting damnation.  Catechism.

The Final Judgment does not change the individual’s fate, but will reveal in full the justice and glory of God for all to see.

If going to heaven, there is first a stage of purgatory to ‘purge’ residual sinful attachments.  During this period, prayers may be applied to speed or ease the process.

If you are damned, it is too late for prayer.

In the forty days following death, an interim judgement takes place when your guardian angel argues with the devil on your merits and sins during your life.  This involves passing through 20 ‘aerial tollhouses’ where the soul is tested through fire in different ways.

Some souls find themselves (after the forty days) in a condition of foretasting eternal joy and blessedness, and others in fear of the eternal torments which will come in full after the Last Judgment. Until then changes are possible in the condition of souls, especially through offering for them the Bloodless Sacrifice (commemoration at the Liturgy), and likewise by other prayers.  Orthodox explanation.

The Roman interpretation raises a question: if we assert that ‘Christ will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead’, but judgment occurs immediately after death, what do we think will Christ do?  The answer is to reveal to all God’s plan and the lessons of our lives.  Yet what would this achieve if our fates are now sealed?  What relationship do we have with Christ?

In any case, it must be a firm conclusion that there is an interim state when we die, for we are destined for the new Kingdom of Heaven and Earth after Christ comes, with a new earth and new bodies.

Heaven and hell

Heaven: those who die in God’s grace and friendship and are perfectly purified live forever with Christ. They are like God forever, for they “see him as he is,” face to face.  Hell is the state of definitive self-exclusion from communion with God and the blessed, sometimes called ‘eternal fire’.

Heaven and hell are two ways of experiencing the uncreated light of God, if we accept God or reject God.  Paradise and Hell do not exist from God’s point of view, but from man’s point of view. It is a subject of man’s choice and condition.  Heaven and hell are often depicted as both being within the realm of Christ.

Essentially the same, but western tradition usually pictures two separate places whereas eastern tradition pictures one domain of Christ.  The language of 'judgment' and 'everlasting damnation' imply an action external to the individual, rather than a self-imposed experience of God, and I wonder if these words themselves harden hearts rather than soften them.

CHURCH ORGANISATION

Papal primacy

Papal primacy in the context of conciliarity is agreed, most recently with reference to the Ravenna document of 2007 which agrees terms between east and west, with further dialogue in the future on how it is exercised.

The Pope is ‘first among equals’ (‘protos’) in terms of Bishops.

There are historical examples where the Pope has played a role in resolving disputes spanning east and west.

Papal supremacy and infallibility

The pope, by reason of his office as Vicar of Christ and as pastor of the entire Christian Church, has full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered.  Vatican I (1870) declared Papal infallibility whereby the Pope speaking ex cathedra (‘officially’ rather than informally) declares a matter of faith or morals.

Catechism of the Catholic Church

All Bishops have equal authority; no Bishop can command or over-rule another.  A Patriarch has the most important area in the country and leads the Church of that country, a Metropolitan or Archbishop has a regionally important area.  Important issues spanning more than one area may be discussed in a Council.  In the first century, Saint Paul took on 'the care of all the churches' and wrote half of the New Testament. Orthodox explanation.

This is a hard topic to summarise.  Leadership is different to control or authority.  I can see two important questions: what did Jesus mean when He said “and on this rock I build my Church”; and what leadership, organisation, dispute resolution and fraternal behaviour was seen in the early Church, closest to Our Lord and the Apostles.  Peter was an illiterate fisherman, so consider what qualified him to be a 'rock', because he was.  Jesus said that the greatest among the disciples was the most humble.

Historic Ecumenical Councils

The first seven Ecumenical Councils are accepted.

I. First Council of Nicea, (325); repudiated Arianism, adopted the Nicene Creed.

II. First Council of Constantinople, (381); revised the Nicene Creed.

III. Council of Ephesus, (431); repudiated Nestorianism, proclaimed the Virgin Mary as the Mother of God (Theotokos).

IV. Council of Chalcedon, (451); described and delineated the two natures of Christ, human and divine.

V. Second Council of Constantinople, (553); reaffirmed decisions and doctrines.

VI. Third Council of Constantinople, (680-681); repudiated Monothelitism, affirmed that Christ had both human and Divine wills.  Quinisext Council - an administrative council accepted by the Orthodox Church as a part of Council VI, but rejected by Roman Catholics.

VII. Second Council of Nicea, (787); restoration of the veneration of icons.

Acts 15 describes the earliest ‘proto-Council’ held in Jerusalem involving the Apostles, where they discus how to proceed with a diverse but universal Church with many theological and practical questions.

Smaller, regional Councils take place often, but those listed here span the whole Church.

Subsequent Councils

The Roman Catholic Church recognises 13 further Councils, including challenges of Protestantism that were greater in the West.

The most recent Council was Vatican II in 1962-1965.

Church Councils are not valid unless headed by the Pope; in which case Vatican II declared that their decisions are infallible.

Orthodoxy upholds the reality that the Church, gathered together in Council under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, is guided in making correct decisions and in enunciating truth.

One further Pan-Orthodox Council is recognised, that of Crete in 2016.

PRACTICE OF WORSHIP

The Sanctuary

Typically a platform raised above the nave behind a rail hosting the altar and tabernacle.  Historically, the ’rail’ would be a tall and ornate lattice ‘rood screen’ with a central door, but since the 16th century, Renaissance architects removed or minimised the barrier with the nave, and post-Vatican II, even a rail was removed in many churches.

A raised area completely separated from the nave by an ornate screen of icons and curtains.  The public never enter the sanctuary and only see some of the priest’s actions.  The Gospels, the gifts and the body and blood for communion are brought out from the sanctuary.  The practice has not changed for centuries.

The Nave

The area for the congregation to gather and worship.  Almost always formed of aisles and pews with kneelers, with standing space at the rear.  The attitude is generally kneeling in supplication, sitting to learn, or standing in respect of God and the Gospel.  Veneration of pictures or statues is before or after Mass.

The area for the congregation to gather and worship.  The attitude is standing in expectation of the coming of Christ.  Some foldup seats are found along the walls or at columns.  There is nowhere specifically to kneel, though some may do so on the floor for certain prayers.  People will move freely around and venerate icons on the walls and light candles.

I find western kneeling good for the soul, and I find eastern expectant standing also good for the soul.  Standing and moving around means nobody occupies a fixed space which is levelling and gives a different feeling of community.

Icons and statues

Statues and stained glass pictures are very common.  Paintings, including icons, are also found.

Statues are rare though permitted.  Icons dominate, reflecting ancient traditions and the outcome of the iconoclasm dispute.  Often the entire interior of the church is decorated with Biblical and saintly paintings.

The ‘icononclast’ dispute (726-842) had a great effect in the East, perhaps a reason why icons are held more important.  The dispute was at a time when civilisation had collapsed in the West.  The East is wary of statues encouraging idolatry, but they are allowed.

Lighting of candles by the public

Candles may be lit to offer private prayers, often at a Marian altar or shrine, with a donation.

Normally each person will light a candle on entering the church, with a donation. This represents the desire for Christ’s light to shine in us, and is accompanied with other private prayers and in memory of the departed.

Liturgy (meaning public service)

Called ‘Mass’, possibly a corruption of ‘Ita missa est’ (‘dismissed’) at the end of Mass.  Though historically in the language of Rome (Latin), since Vatican II the vernacular (local language) predominates.  The latest major revision to liturgy was the Novus Ordo in 1969, with further linguistic changes to 2002.  ‘Traditional’ Latin Mass is still practised in a few places.

Called ‘The Divine Liturgy’.  Based on the 1st Century liturgy of Saint James, modified by Saint Basil and Saint John Chrysostom up to the 5th Century.  This is given in the local language, though old forms of the local language may be used.  If there are multiple nationalities present, items like the Creed are recited in each national language.

Reading the Bible in church

Readings at Mass are from the Old Testament, the Psalms, the Epistles and the Gospels.

Readings in liturgy are from the Psalms, the Epistles and the Gospels.  The Old Testament is read in other celebrations.

Singing and music in church

Practices vary widely, but typically three hymns are sung by the congregation during Mass.

There are parts of the Mass that may be sung if there is a choir.  Sometimes the priest will chant parts of the Mass.  A Psalm is read and a refrain repeated by the congregation, but rarely sung.  

Instruments may be used, and organs became common in the 19th century, with a wide variety of instruments now in use.

Much of the Divine Liturgy is sung by a trained choir in a dialogue with the priest.  In antiquity and in some current traditions, the congregation also sing these.  There are no hymns as such.  Instruments are typically not used, as the Church Fathers considered the human voice as the highest form of prayer.

It is disappointing when Psalms are not sung.  Jesus and the disciples sang the Psalms.  It is also disappointing if the Sanctus is only spoken, since it is often preceded by ‘with Angels and Archangels… we sing the hymn of your glory, as without end we acclaim’, and we know Angels sing.

King David has many Psalms accompanied by harps, lyres and cymbals.

The real body and blood of Jesus Christ

Epiclesis = the calling down of the Holy Spirit in the Eucharistic prayer, when the priest lays hands over the bread and wine.

The real body and blood are made present at the words of consecration ‘This is my body…’ etc. (Councils of Florence and Trent, and widely held view).  Bells are rung to signify this.  The change is called Transubstantiation.  Just before this, the priests hands are held over the gifts.  Prior to 1969, the Holy Spirit was not specifically invoked but some consider the hands are an implicit epiclesis.  Since 1969 there are four possible prayers: the first does not name the Holy Spirit but the three new ones do.  The Catechism 1353 states "In the epiclesis, the Church asks the Father to send his Holy Spirit (or the power of his blessing) on the bread and wine, so that by his power they may become the body and blood of Jesus Christ..."

The real body and blood are made present during the whole Eucharistic prayer (Anaphora), including the Epiclesis, which is essential in calling down the Holy Spirit to change the substance.  Whether there is an exact moment is a mystery.  The whole liturgy brings the faithful into the Body of Christ through communion, not one sentence followed by eating.  Per St John Damascene, the Holy Spirit conceives Christ’s body in Mary’s womb and the Holy Spirit causes the bread and wine to become the Body and Blood of Christ.

Divine Liturgy of St John Chrysostom "Send down Thy Holy Spirit upon us and upon these gifts here offered."

All ancient rites had an Epiclesis and it became reduced in the west in the Middle Ages and the Holy Spirit invocation dropped.  This topic is an important disagreement between east and west, since it is thought (by many both east and west) that the West regard an epiclesis as incidental, though there are conflicting narratives.

It is hard to see how you can 'ask the Father to send his Holy Spirit' or 'invoke' (call on) the Holy Spirit without using words.  The Roman Catholic Church has reintroduced the invocation of the Holy Spirit in the Novus Ordo.

Communion involving bread and wine

The Council of Trent requires the priest to receive both bread (host) and wine, but the public need only receive bread.  There is no prohibition on receiving both, and both are somtimes offered, but receiving wine is less common.  The bread is a wafer, one per person.

Communion is always of bread and wine together.  The bread is soaked in wine.  If communion bread is taken away for the sick or elderly, it has already had wine applied to it and allowed to dry.  The bread is cut from the centre of a single loaf of fresh bread, leaving the outside as a reminder that we are within the Body of Christ.

Jesus gave His disciples both bread and wine at the Last Supper as His body and blood.  The taking of wine, as blood, would have been particularly striking to Jews given the prohibition on drinking blood, which represents life, surely a potent message from God.

Method of receiving communion.

Historically the host was given on the tongue, kneeling.  Placing it into the hands, standing, became an accepted exception, and then the mainstream practice.  Both ways are acceptable.  If wine is taken, it is sipped from a chalice.  A dish may be used to catch any fragments of fallen host.

Cubes of bread soaked in wine are placed from a chalice into the recipient’s mouth using a silver spoon while the recipient holds up a cloth underneath.  This seems to have become normal in mediaeval times.

Presumably the earliest Christian practices were very simple, and chalices would be present in the Jewish tradition.

Leavened or unleavened bread for communion

The bread must be unleavened, as this is understood to be what was used at the Last Supper and Jewish Passover.  This has become a circular wafer over time.

The bread must be leavened, although some traditions use a very dense bread.  The centre of the loaf is given to communicants, while the outer part remains in the sanctuary, representing the communicants being within the body of Christ.  At the 3rd Ecumenical Council, Bishops Cyril and Irenaeus appear to refer to leavened bread and it seems all eastern churches used leavened bread from the outset.  Link.

The Bible does not identify whether the bread (‘artos’) of the Last Supper was leavened or not.  'Artos' has the same root as 'air' and is a wide-ranging term for bread or food.  However no leaven is allowed in Jewish households in the week leading to Passover, and Jesus said ‘prepare a Passover meal’ so unleavened matzos (Hebrew) or azumos (Greek, 'azymes') is possible, though 'azumos' is not in the Gospels.  If a post-resurrection viewpoint is taken then leavened bread is a symbol of the new order.

Frequency of communion

Communion is usually received by each person every week during Mass, and recipients should go to confession beforehand if they have mortal sin.  Nothing can be eaten for at least one hour before communion.  This used to be from midnight beforehand, but was relaxed by Pope Paul VI in 1964.

Communion (preceded by confession) is usually received a few times a year.  Fasting from midnight before is a minimum, and a longer period is usually observed.

There are two competing viewpoints: that communion is very good and should be received at every opportunity; and that it is very holy and should be approached with great solemnity and preparation.

Fasting

Advocated during Lent, although some other sacrifice is more commonly chosen such as giving up a pleasure.

Historically, fasting in Advent was also practised, but very little today.

Meat should not be eaten on Fridays, meaning simple food should be eaten in memory of the Crucifixion.

Fasting is taken seriously during Lent, Advent, Wednesdays and Fridays, and in preparation for communion.  Great Lent normally involves no meat, fish, dairy or eggs.

Fasting changes your body chemistry and is a method of discipline to the desires of the body which is an Eastern emphasis.  We are told by Jesus it enhances prayer.  This seems to have been forgotten in many parts of the West, where it is seen as emptying the stomach for reception of communion, or self-sacrifice.

Consecrated host or divine bread kept in the church

Consecrated host is kept in a tabernacle, usually central behind the altar, although may be to one side.  A red light is kept lit to indicate its presence.

Divine bread is kept in the church within the sanctuary but cannot be seen.  

Eucharistic adoration

It is widely practised that a consecrated host is displayed on the altar and worshipped for an hour in quiet contemplation.

Not practised.  Consecrated bread is for communion, no other purpose.

Infant communion

Practised until the 11th century, but now virtually never practised.

Practised.  Some Church Fathers even thought this was necessary for the salvation of infants.

Sacraments

There are seven sacraments, and this is considered a holy number.

Baptism

Confirmation

Communion

Reconciliation (Confession)

Marriage

Holy Orders

Anointing of the sick (Extreme unction)

There are seven sacraments but this is not considered a special number.

Baptism

Confirmation (Chrismation)

Communion

Penance (Confession)

Marriage

Holy Orders

Anointing of the sick 

Crossing yourself

Forehead - breastbone - left breast - right breast.

A ‘pull’ from left to right.

From heaven to earth, from east to west.

Note, in Latin, the word ‘Spiritus’ [et Spiritus Sancti] is pronounced with the hand over the left (heart) side of the chest.

A larger cross, Forehead - belly - right shoulder - left shoulder.  Often a deep bow, even to touch the ground on the downstroke or after the cross.  A ‘push’ from right to left.

Note, in Greek (and other languages) the word for 'Spirit' comes last [kai toû Hagíou Pneúmatos] and is pronounced with the hand over the left (heart) side of the chest.

It is fascinating to see some Easterns reaching to the extremities of their body, like they are being cloaked with blessing. 
 

Both traditions pronounce the word ‘Spirit’ on the heart side of the chest, when considering Latin as the mother tongue of the Roman Catholic Church..

Priests - celibate or married

Priests cannot get married so must be celibate, but married men who have been ordained outside the Roman Rite can be accepted e.g. Anglicans or Eastern Catholic Rite.  There are over 100 married Roman Catholic priests in the UK.

There is an expectation that priests will be married before ordination and do not have to be celibate (in fact should have families).

Bishops are chosen from celibate candidates, almost always monks.

There seemed to be a variety of practices in the early Church, and the divergence occurred in the middle ages.